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Napoleon Bonaparte - short biography and interesting facts. Proclamation of Napoleon as Emperor Proclamation of Napoleon as Emperor

But the economic crisis in the country continued. The provisional government was unable to solve the problem of employment. The discovery of the so-called national workshops for the unemployed, in which more than 100,000 people were accepted.

Alphonse Lamartine. The republic was recognized by the clergy and the bourgeoisie. The Provisional Government abolished titles of nobility, issued decrees on freedom of the press, political meetings, the right for all citizens to join the National Guard, and the introduction of universal suffrage for men over 21 years of age. The most liberal political regime was established in France.

To get out of the financial crisis, the Provisional Government introduced a decree on a 45% tax. It caused growing discontent in the country. As a result of this, reactionary representatives entered the Constituent Assembly.

The government newly formed after the elections launched an offensive against the workers of Paris - armed meetings were prohibited. General Cavaignac was appointed to the post of Minister of War.

On June 22, 1848, the new government issued a decree dissolving national workshops, which became the reason for the start of an uprising of Parisian workers. The fighting lasted 4 days - from June 23 to 26. The troops of the Minister of War, General Cavaignac, suppressed this uprising. After the suppression, democratic changes were suspended. The new government closed radical newspapers, clubs and societies. But universal suffrage was preserved.

In the presidential elections in December 1848, Napoleon Bonaparte's nephew, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, received the majority of votes.

The regime established after the revolution of 1848 was called the Second Republic.

59. FRANCE IN THE 1850–1860s. SECOND EMPIRE

Since the election of Louis, Napoleon took measures to strengthen the position of his supporters, the Bonapartists. His goal was to restore the monarchy. To ensure support for the implementation of their goals, the Bonapartists promised the bourgeoisie and peasants an era of prosperity. In an effort to win over the army, Louis Bonaparte placed his supporters in all important military posts. In October 1849, Louis Bonaparte formed a government almost exclusively of his supporters, which, through police measures, prepared the triumph of Bonapartism.

Taking advantage of the unpopularity of the Legislative Assembly in the country, the Bonapartists launched a struggle in the spring of 1851 to revise the constitution. They sought the destruction of articles that prohibited the re-election of the same person as president of the republic for a second term.

The bourgeoisie of France demanded a “strong government” and saw in Louis Bonaparte a guarantee of the stability of state power. In November 1851, Louis Bonaparte formed a new homogeneous Bonapartist government, and the Bonapartists began to prepare to disperse the Legislative Assembly. On the night of December 2, 1851, the most prominent figures and deputies of the bourgeois-republican Orléanist and legitimist camp were arrested. The Legislative Assembly was dissolved. To approve the coup d'état, a plebiscite was held on December 21, 1851, a survey of the population, as a result of which Louis Bonaparte received the support of the French.

In 1852, a new constitution was adopted. From the previous symbols of the revolution, a tricolor banner remained, from which the words “French Republic” were removed. Freedom. Equality. Brotherhood". The emperor became the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, could declare war and make peace, issue decrees and appoint to government positions. The ministers were subordinate only to the emperor. Local governments were highly dependent on the central government. The press was under police control. The clergy, who supported Louis Napoleon, gained enormous power in the country. Schools were under the supervision of the church, but the clergy sought to establish their control over higher education. The government carried out a “purge” of teachers at universities; many professors, liberals and republicans, resigned. Thus, the political regime of the Second Empire was established in France.

Over the years, the regime became more liberal: in 1859, an amnesty was declared for all persons convicted of political offenses; emigrants were given the opportunity to return to the country; in the 60s XIX century Napoleon II restored freedom of the press and assembly; restored to the Legislative Assembly the power to propose laws; workers were allowed to create mutual aid societies. The authoritarian regime gradually developed into a democratic one.

The period of the Second Empire coincided with the rapid rise of capitalism in France. In the 50s XIX century New credit societies were founded and quickly began to develop. The industrial revolution was rapidly completed, and manual labor in some industries was replaced by machine labor. Mining, chemical and paper industries developed, and gas production increased.

As a result of the industrial revolution, all industrial enterprises, banks, and railways were concentrated in the hands of 183 families in France. In the countryside, the process of stratification of peasants intensified: some of them became richer, others became poorer and went to the city. To ease social tensions and create new jobs, Napoleon III organized large public works that would transform Paris while demonstrating the emperor's concern for his subjects.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) first became famous during the capture of the Toulon fortress captured by the British in 1793, receiving the rank of brigadier general for this. However, this was where his career almost ended due to too close a connection with the brother of the soon executed dictator of France, Auguste Robespierre. His marriage to the mistress of the actual head of the French government during the Directory period, Paul Barras, Josephine Beauharnais, immediately turned Bonaparte into one of the influential persons of the French Republic. In 1795, he suppressed the royalist uprising in Paris. Josephine Beauharnais managed to achieve the appointment of her husband as head of the army in Italy in 1796. Finally, Bonaparte was able to show his military leadership and organizational genius. Italy was conquered. His Egyptian campaign of 1798-1799 also became legendary. Returning from Egypt, Bonaparte carried out a coup d'etat on November 9, 1799 (18 Brumaire of the VIII year of the Republic), which made him first consul.
In this post, Napoleon Bonaparte carried out the most important internal reforms that strengthened the economy and order in the country. Many of his reforms, in particular the Napoleonic Code, laid the foundations of modern civilization. Gradually, Bonaparte himself became more and more inclined towards the ideas of monarchism. In 1802, as a result of a plebiscite (popular vote), he was declared consul for life, and on May 18, 1804 he was proclaimed emperor. On December 2, 1804, in Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, Pope Pius VII solemnly crowned Emperor Napoleon I, placing a diadem on him and a crown on Josephine. True, only in 1808 did France begin to officially be called an empire, and before that Napoleon “ruled a republic.” Soon after Napoleon was proclaimed emperor, wars of conquest began, during which the French emperor and his army reached Moscow and then retreated to Paris.

... He crowned the head with a self-made crown,
Anointed with your own power!
A.S. Khomyakov

By 1804, the Civil Code, on which the best legal minds of France had worked for many years, acquired a finished form, was published and came into force on March 21, 1804. The Code legitimized the most important gains of the French Revolution: equality of citizens before the law, freedom of personality, property, labor, beliefs, separation of state and church. Compulsory civil marriage was introduced and divorce was allowed. But women did not have equal rights with men. Subsequently, this code became the basis of civil law in many European states, including the Russian Empire.

Napoleon in imperial robes
Francois Pascal Simon GERARD

March 21, 1804. Proclamation of the Civil Code

Jean-Etienne Marie Portalis. Felix FILIPPOTO

Jean-Etienne Marie Portalis. Pierre GAUTERO

Very soon the new set of laws began to be called the Napoleonic Code, although Napoleon Bonaparte did not write a single line in it. The commission for work on the code included François Denis Tronchet (chairman), Jean Etienne Marie Portalis, Felix Julien Jean Bigot de Preamene, and Jacques de Malleville (secretary). The real “father”, the main developer and inspirer of the basic principles of the Civil Code was the famous French jurist and advocate Jean Etienne-Marie Portalis. But who remembers this now?

Napoleon, crowned with the Allegory of Time, writes the Civil Code
Jean Baptiste MOSES

My true glory is not that I won 40 battles...
But what cannot be forgotten, what will live forever - this is my Civil Code

All freedoms were recorded in the code, including freedom of speech, and representative institutions were preserved - the Senate, the Tribunal. But in fact, Napoleon closed or persecuted objectionable newspapers, and the powers of the Senate and Tribunate were in fact limited. The word "republic" gradually disappeared. The citizen was replaced by the address “Madame”, “Monsieur”, and Napoleon began to be called Your Imperial Majesty, which did not sound revolutionary at all...

Napoleon on the stairs of the Louvre, accompanied by the architects Percier and Fontaine.
Louis-Charles-Auguste COUDER

Not only was the Civil Code named after Napoleon, but after the opening of the renovated Louvre Museum, it was renamed the Napoleon Museum. Then August 15 - Napoleon's birthday - was declared a national holiday. The blindness of power continued.

Proclamation of Bonaparte Emperor of France by two consuls on May 18, 1804

I accept this title, which you have found useful for the glory of the people

In May 1804, by decision of the Senate, Napoleon Bonaparte was awarded the title of emperor. On May 18, the French Republic, according to the new Constitution, ceased to exist, France was henceforth called the French Empire. Even then, the reaction to this was ambiguous; the emperor had to hear bitter words of condemnation even from his comrades (Carnot, Lanna). Rouget de Lille, the author of the Marseillaise, predicted Bonaparte an inevitable catastrophe and an inglorious end, sending him an angry message: “You will perish, and, what’s worse, you will destroy France along with you.” Ludwig van Beethoven, who dedicated his “Eroic Symphony” to the fiery revolutionary, took the dedication back after learning about the transformation of citizen Bonaparte into an emperor.

Napoleon receives senators and consuls in Saint-Cloud, who proclaim him Emperor of the French. 18 May 1804
Georges Rouget

Be Bonaparte and become king! So get down! Paul-Louis Courier

The Constitution introduced the title of Marshal of the Empire. On May 19, 18 marshals were appointed (four of them were honorary due to their advanced age). Here, for example, are some of them: Pierre-François-Charles Augereau, Duke of Castillon, marshal and peer of France, son of a footman; Marshal Jacques Lannes, Bonaparte's favorite, friend, Duke of Montebelo - son of a village miller; Michel Ney - the bravest comrade-in-arms, Prince of Moscow, Duke of Elchingen, son of a barrel maker; Joachim Murat is the husband of Napoleon's sister Caroline, Duke of Berg and Cleves, King of Naples, son of an innkeeper. This became the new French nobility. It is easy to imagine how this must have irritated monarchical Europe.

Jean-Jacques-Regis de Cambaceres, Archchancellor of the Empire
François-Sérafin DELPECH

Charles-François Lebrun, Prince and Arch-Treasurer of the Empire
Robert LEFEVRE

Napoleon created a new system of government. He wanted to look like a Roman emperor, the bearer of supreme power. He surrounded himself with high dignitaries, the Supreme Council under the Emperor: he introduced the positions of great chancellor (archchancellor), great treasurer (archtreasurer).

Portrait of Louis Bonaparte Unknown artist

Portrait of Joseph Bonaparte by Luigi TORO

Napoleon also promoted his mediocre brother Joseph to greatness; from now on he was called the great elector, he prepared the monarchical position of constable for his brother Louis, the state archchancellor for his stepson Eugene Beauharnais, and even the dashing cavalryman Murat, the husband of Caroline's sister, became a great... admiral.

Portrait of Eugene Beauharnais, State Archchancellor. Johann Heinrich RICHTER

Portrait of Joachim Murat, great admiral. Francois Pascal Simon GERARD

Josephine Beauharnais, née Taché de la Pagerie, wife of Napoleon in her second marriage
Abraham Konstantin

Josephine became empress, while easily and confidently coping with the role of the first lady of France; brothers Joseph and Louis - princes of the imperial house. They were now entitled not only to new outfits made of silk, velvet and gold, but palaces and courts, a new way of life, official days and court etiquette. The residence of the emperor, the Tuileries Palace, became a model of splendor and luxury. The Emperor was given a civil list of twenty-five million francs a year.

Napoleon at the ball

Josephine during a social reception
Baron MIRBAH

Reception at Malmaison
Francois FLAMENG

During rest
Illustration for the book The Life of Napoleon Bonaparte by William Milligan Sloan, 1896

Josephine remained the only woman, perhaps even the only person, who retained influence over Bonaparte. He continued to love her, of course, not as ardently as in the first years of marriage. He knew her weaknesses and shortcomings, he knew that Josephine had been unfaithful to him in the past, he saw that, despite all her tricks, she was getting old, although she still retained her former charm, femininity and grace. Nevertheless, he was very attached to her.

Portrait of Josephine Beauharnais (beautiful Creole)
Portraits of monarchs from the Sinebrykhov collection

Apparently, suspecting her husband’s intentions, Josephine had long been against Napoleon’s monarchy and against the hereditary power of the Bonapartes. She understood perfectly well that the emperor would need an heir, but she could no longer have children, which means a divorce was inevitable. Soon Madame Bonaparte became the first anti-Bonapartist in France. But the emperor solved this problem in his own way, lulling his wife’s vigilance: he offered to marry his stepdaughter Hortense Beauharnais to his younger brother Louis. And according to his plan, the children from this marriage were to become heirs to the throne.

Louis Napoleon. Charles Howard HODGES

Hortense Beauharnais. Francois GERARD

And although this marriage took place, it was not happy; the couple soon separated, despite the fact that they had three sons (including Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the future president, and then Emperor Napoleon III).

Maria Letizia Ramolino
Baron François Pascal Simon GERARD

This state of affairs in no way suited the rest of Napoleon’s large family. Mother Letitia was offended by her sons Jerome and Lucien, who were excluded from the imperial family due to their unauthorized marriages, so much so that she did not appear at her son’s solemn coronation.

Jerome Bonaparte. Gilbert STEWART

Lucien Bonaparte. Francois Xavier CABRATS

Portraits of Napoleon's sisters
Maria Anna Elisa Maria Paoletta Maria Annunziata Caroline
Pierre Paul PRUDON Solomon Guillaume KOONS Leopold KUPELWIESER

The deprived brothers weaved secret intrigues against Napoleon, and the sisters threw scandals and hysterics, demanding that they too be elevated to the rank of princesses and called “Highnesses.” When Napoleon went to meet them, they were again dissatisfied, since they were lower in the hierarchy than the “widow of Beauharnais” and demanded that their brother immediately divorce her. It was also not easy with the brothers Joseph and Lucien. Greedy for money, honors and power, they demanded the establishment of a hereditary monarchy, considering themselves the only heirs. Forgetting about decency, they discussed the issue of Napoleon's death and what should be provided in advance in this case.

Napoleon Bonaparte
Per KÖHLER
Portraits of monarchs from the Sinebrykhov collection

Empress Josephine was concerned about all this fuss, but played her game more subtly and delicately; her immediate goal was to achieve the sanctification of her marriage with Napoleon by the church, and in this she succeeded, enlisting the support of Pope Pius VII.

Emperor Napoleon I

However, the solemn ceremony in the Tuileries was not enough for Bonaparte. A true emperor must receive the blessing of Rome. Like Charlemagne a thousand years before. It is interesting that the coronation was preceded by the following event: on August 11, Franz II, Holy Roman Emperor of the German nation, became Franz I, Emperor of Austria. That is, the brainchild of Charlemagne disappeared. And Bonaparte’s title was not Emperor of France, but Emperor of the French (Francorum - Franks). Napoleon already has almost all parts of Charlemagne's power in his pocket and the Pope, like a thousand years ago, is completely subordinate to the new Caesar...

It should be noted that Charlemagne himself traveled to the Pope. Napoleon summoned the pontiff to Paris. After much deliberation, Pius VII finally agreed to come to the emperor’s coronation. What was left for him? The French troops were located very close to Rome, in addition, the pope hoped to resolve differences and try to negotiate a revision of some of the agreements of the Concodat of 1801.

Napoleon goes to see Pope Pius VII. November 25, 1804
Alexander Hyacinth DUNE

Having discharged the pope, Napoleon promised the cardinals that he would go to meet him. And he went, but... in a hunting suit, surrounded by hunters, hounds and dogs, and met the pontiff without any honors in the forest of Fontainebleau, a few steps from the country palace where he then lived. The papal cortege stopped, Pius VII was invited to get out of the carriage, cross the road on foot and transfer to the emperor’s carriage, who did not even move.

Napoleon Bonaparte and Pope Pius VII at Fontainebleau
Baron MIRBAH
Illustration for the book The Life of Napoleon Bonaparte by William Milligan Sloan, 1896

Napoleon and Pope Pius VII at Fontainebleau
Baron MIRBAH
Illustration for the book The Life of Napoleon Bonaparte by William Milligan Sloan, 1896

Bonaparte treated the pope in the same spirit during his stay in Paris. The Pope complained bitterly, dissembled a lot, grumbled and complained, but in the end he did not bargain for anything... Neither he nor his cardinals were able to outwit Napoleon.

Coronation rehearsal
Jacques Marie Gaston Onfre de BREVILLE

Napoleon plans a coronation ceremony
Jean Georges VIBER

The coronation ceremony itself was thought out to the smallest detail, approved and rehearsed several times.

On December 1, 1804, the wedding of Napoleon Bonaparte and Josephine Beauharnais took place in the church.

Bishop, Apostolic Nuncio Speroni carries the cross at the coronation of His Majesty
Unknown artist

December 2, 1804. The Emperor's cortege heads from the Tuileries to Notre Dame Cathedral
Drawing of Lelu

Napoleon Bonaparte goes to his coronation at Notre Dame

And on December 2, 1804, grateful France proclaimed Napoleon Bonaparte emperor.

Jacques Louis DAVID

The consecration of Napoleon I as emperor and the coronation of Empress Josephine at Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris on December 2, 1804.
Jacques Louis DAVID

Joseph, if only Father could see us now!

Napoleon in full imperial garb
Jean Auguste Dominique ENGR

Napoleon needed the head of the Catholic Church, His Holiness Pope Pius VII, not to sanctify his accession to the imperial throne and receive a blessing, but as a wedding general, only to give legitimacy to the coronation, compliance with ritual and etiquette. Therefore, it was not surprising that when Pius VII tried to place a large imperial crown on the head of Napoleon Bonaparte, he snatched it from the hands of the pontiff and placed it on his own head. After this, his wife Josephine knelt before the emperor, and he placed a smaller crown on her head.

Fireworks for Napoleon's coronation

Allegorical depiction of Emperor Napoleon
Andrea APPIANI

Disabled man petitioning Napoleon
Horace VERNET

Disabled man submitting a petition to Napoleon, fragment
Horace VERNET

Napoleon in coronation clothes
James GILLRAY
English caricature

The British, naturally, have their own view of the coronation of Napoleon I.

Jacques-Louis DAVID

Distribution of banners with eagles to army units on the Champ de Mars on December 5, 1804.

The army swears allegiance to the emperor on December 5, 1804.
Jacques-Louis DAVID

Celebrations in the palace, in the capital and throughout the country lasted for several days, endless illuminations and fireworks burned, fireworks thundered, bells buzzed, music, songs and dances did not stop. The apotheosis of the celebrations was the oath of the army to the emperor on the Champ de Mars in Paris on December 5, 1804.

Emperor Napoleon I
Illustration for James Bailey's book Napoleon: An Illustrated Edition of Modern Engravings and Other Portraits, 1908

Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte
Illustration for James Bailey's book Napoleon: An Illustrated Edition of Modern Engravings and Other Portraits, 1908

First sketch of the Pantheon dome
Antupn-Jean GRO

Napoleon I in coronation clothes
Anne-Louis GIRAUDET de ROUSY-TRIOSON

Napoleon king of Italy
Andrea APPIANI

Eugene (Eugene) Beauharnais Viceroy of Italy
Andrea APPIANI

Napoleon - Emperor of France and King of Italy
Illustration for James Bailey's book Napoleon: An Illustrated Edition of Modern Engravings and Other Portraits, 1908

While the English Prime Minister William Pitt was recovering from the failure of the Cadoudal conspiracy and putting together a new, already third, coalition against Napoleon, the latter wanted to become king of Italy and in May 1805 was crowned in Milan. Josephine's son Eugene Beauharnais was appointed Viceroy.

pro100-mica.livejournal.com

Napoleon Bonaparte is the first French emperor and one of the most talented commanders of all time. He had high intelligence, a fantastic memory and was distinguished by an amazing capacity for work.

Napoleon personally developed combat strategies that allowed him to emerge victorious in most battles, both on land and at sea.

As a result, after 2 years of hostilities, the Russian army entered Paris in triumph, and Napoleon abdicated the throne and was exiled to the island of Elba, in.

Moscow fire

However, less than a year later he escapes and returns back to Paris.

By this time, the French were concerned that the monarchical Bourbon dynasty might once again take power. That is why they enthusiastically greeted the return of Emperor Napoleon.

Ultimately, Napoleon was overthrown and captured by the British. This time he was sent into exile on the island of St. Helena, in which he remained for about 6 years.

Personal life

From his youth, Napoleon had an increased interest in girls. It is generally accepted that he was short (168 cm), but at that time such height was considered quite normal.

In addition, he had good posture and strong-willed facial features. Thanks to this, he was very popular among women.

Napoleon's first love was 16-year-old Desiree Eugenia Clara. However, their relationship did not turn out to be strong. Once in the capital, the future emperor began many affairs with Parisian women, who were often older than him.

Napoleon and Josephine

7 years after the French Revolution, Napoleon first met Josephine Beauharnais. A whirlwind romance began between them, and in 1796 they began to live in a civil marriage.

It is interesting that at that time Josephine already had two children from a previous marriage. In addition, she even spent some time in prison.

The couple had a lot in common. They both grew up in the provinces, faced difficulties in life, and also had prison experience.

Napoleon and Josephine

When Napoleon participated in various military campaigns, his beloved remained in Paris. Josephine enjoyed life, and he languished with melancholy and jealousy towards her.

It was difficult to call the famous commander a monogamist, and even rather the opposite. His biographers suggest that he had about 40 favorites. From some of them he had children.

After living with Josephine for about 14 years, Napoleon decides to divorce her. One of the main reasons for the divorce was that the girl could not have children.

An interesting fact is that Bonaparte initially proposed marriage to Anna Pavlovna Romanova. He proposed to her through her brother.

However, the Russian emperor made it clear to the Frenchman that he did not want to become related to him. Some historians believe that this episode from Napoleon's biography influenced further relations between Russia and France.

Soon the commander married the daughter of the Austrian emperor, Maria Louise. In 1811 she gave birth to his long-awaited heir.

It is worth paying attention to one more interesting fact. Fate turned out in such a way that it was Josephine’s grandson, and not Bonaparte, who in the future became emperor. His descendants still successfully reign in several European countries.

But Napoleon's pedigree soon ceased to exist. Bonaparte's son died at a young age, leaving no offspring.

After the abdication at the Palace of Fontainebleau

However, the wife, who lived with her father at that time, did not even remember her husband. Not only did she not express a desire to see him, but she did not even write him a single letter in response.

Death

After his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon lived out his last years on the island of St. Elena. He was in a state of deep depression and suffered from pain in his right side.

He himself thought that he had cancer, from which his father died.

There is still debate about the true cause of his death. Some believe that he died from cancer, while others are convinced that there was arsenic poisoning.

The latest version is explained by the fact that after the death of the emperor, arsenic was found in his hair.

In his will, Bonaparte asked to bury his remains in France, which was done in 1840. His grave is located in the Parisian Invalides on the territory of the cathedral.

Photo of Napoleon

At the end we offer you to look at the most famous photos of Napoleon. Of course, all portraits of Bonaparte were made by artists, since cameras simply did not exist at that time.