Civilizations of the ancient two rivers. Timeline of the history of ancient Mesopotamia System of cultures - Mesopotamia
The history of Mesopotamia during the times of the Sumerians, Akkadians, Assyria and Babylon is still largely unexplored. Often, new finds, new texts or monuments with memorial inscriptions force historians to correct certain dates and periods in the life of the Mesopotamian states.
There is especially little information on the chronology of the Sumerians - they, as a rule, did not compile chronological lists or chronicles. The famous “Royal List”, dating back to the 3rd Dynasty of Ur, gives a very inaccurate chronology - both due to the poor preservation of the copy of the list available to ancient scribes, and due to the fact that some of the rulers from the list are purely mythological characters. The period of the reign of Hammurabi in Babylon is usually taken as the main starting point for the chronology of the Mesopotamian states. The dating of the later historical period is much more accurate, since the Assyrian rulers compiled rather detailed lists of their dynasties, indicating various important events that took place at this time. Astronomy also comes to the aid of historians in this matter. In ancient chronicles and temple inscriptions, there are sometimes references to events such as a solar eclipse or a comet, which were considered divine omens. Via modern methods it is quite easy to determine the dates of these events with great accuracy. Dates Southern Mesopotamia (Sumer and Babylonia) Northern Mesopotamia (Assyria) X-IX millennium BC The first settlements of farmers in Mesopotamia 6500 BC. Pre-ceramic culture Beginning of the 4th millennium BC Ancient Mesopotamian ceramics and bronze 1st half. IV millennium BC Eridu - the first city of the Sumerians, the cradle of the Sumerian civilization 2nd floor. IV millennium BC El Obeid culture (pre-Sumerian period) 3000 - 2800 BC. The origin of Sumerian pictography, Proto-writing period (Uruk culture) 2800 - 2700 BC. Culture Dzhemdet-Nasra (the first monuments of Sumerian writing) 2600 - 2350 BC. Early Dynastic Period in Sumer. In Lagash - the time of the reign of Lugalanda, the reform of Uruinimgina. In Uruk - the rule of Lugalzaggesi, the first serious attempt to unite all the cities of Sumer into a single kingdom. BC. The reign of Sargon the Ancient, the emergence of the Akkadian kingdom 2284 - 2150. BC. Sargonid rule in Sumer. Akkadian kingdom 2150 - 2060 BC. Invasion of the Gutians, their conquest of northern Mesopotamia and northern Sumer (except Ur and Uruk) 2060 BC. Expulsion of the Gutians from Sumer 2050s BC Rule of Gudea in Lagash, the last rise of Lagash as the cultural and political center of Sumer 2050 - 1950 BC. Board III dynasty of Ur, the unification of Mesopotamia under the rule of the Kingdom of Sumer and Akkad 1950 BC. The invasion of the nomadic tribes of the Amorites. The arrival of the Assyrians to the territory of Mesopotamia. 1950 - 1700 BC. The time of petty kingdoms, a partial return to the era of the city-states of Sumer. Formation of the Assyrian kingdom with its capital in the city of Ashur 1850 BC. Babylon becomes the largest trading center and the de facto capital of Southern Mesopotamia. The foundation of the I Babylonian dynasty, the beginning of the Old Babylonian period in the history of Mesopotamia. The beginning of the Old Assyrian period, the unification of all northern Mesopotamia 1728 - 1686. BC. The reign of Hammurabi, the sixth ruler of the 1st Babylonian dynasty. End of the Old Babylonian period 1680 - 1530 BC e. The reign of the 1st Babylonian dynasty, the gradual loss of power by the Babylonian rulers over Mesopotamia The growth of the political and economic influence of Assyria 1530 - 1160. BC. Capture of Babylonia by the Kassite nomads. Middle Babylonian or Kassite period. Assyria under the rule of the kings of Mitanni Turn of the XV-XIV centuries. BC. Assyria subjugates all of Mesopotamia during the reign of King Ashshuruballit XIV-XI centuries. BC. Middle Assyrian time. The aggressive campaigns of Tiglath-Pileser I (1116 - 1078 BC), a significant increase in the power of Assyria in 1128 - 1105. BC. Reign of Nebuchadnezzar I Late 11th century BC. The weakening of Assyria under the onslaught of nomads, the transfer of the country's capital from Ashur 900 - 605. BC. Babylon falls into dependence on the Assyrian kingdom, but remains a privileged city. Neo-Assyrian time. Unification of all Mesopotamia 809 - 804 BC. The reign of Queen Shammuramat (Semiramide) Transfer of the Assyrian capital to Nineveh 745 - 727. BC. Reign of Tiglath-Pileser III, Assyrian capture of Egypt 704 - 680 BC. The destruction of Babylon by the troops of Sennacherib, the loss of the political independence of Babylonia The reign of Sennacherib. Cancellation of all liberties of ancient cities 669 - 633. BC. Ashurbanipal's reign. The last rise of the political power of Assyria. Cultural heyday, the formation of the famous "Library of Ashurbanipal" 626 - 605 years. BC. Revolt of the Babylonians conquered by Assyria. The invasion of the Medes into the territory of Mesopotamia 605 BC. The beginning of the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II The defeat of the last Assyrian ruler Ashuruballit II. The death of Assyria 539 BC The conquest of Babylon by Persian troops. Complete destruction of Babylon The beginning of the Neo-Babylonian period. The Last Rise of Babylonia Chapter 3 PYRAMID LAND Civilization of Ancient Egypt Introduction History of Egypt Old Kingdom Early Kingdom Old Kingdom I Transition Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Revolutionary Enthroned Late Kingdom Greco-Roman Period Economy and Society of Ancient Egypt “Perjet” Property - Private and Not Quite “ Hemuu” Agriculture Fields and plowing Horticulture Animal husbandry Hunting Poultry and “bird herders” Fishing Crafts Stone-cutting crafts Stone age in the country of the pyramids Blacksmiths and foundry workers Jewelry craft Carpentry craft Shipbuilding Papyrus Leather and leather production Weaving and wool Pottery Social organization Slaves Free - poor and rich nobles Pharaoh Priests and temples Royal army Trade and merchants City and its inhabitants House What the Egyptians ate How they dressed Family Material and spiritual culture Religion Animalism Elemental gods Solar myths Osiris rising from the dead Cult of the dead Divine ruler The gods of Egypt in other lands Scientific knowledge Astronomy Mathematics Chemistry Medicine Writing and literature Formation of writing From the history of deciphering hieroglyphs Literature Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Oral tradition Artistic techniques Architecture Painting and reliefs Sculpture Tutankhamun's tomb. The Story of a Discovery ON THE EVE OF THE EXAM Predynastic Period Old Kingdom Middle Kingdom New Kingdom Late Kingdom Appendices Egyptian Deities The Royal Dynasties of Ancient Egypt *
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Questions Ancient World and Ancient East. Ancient Egypt. Mesopotamia. Eastern Mediterranean.
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Assignment for the lesson Fill in the table: Ancient Egypt Ancient Mesopotamia Eastern Mediterranean Chronological framework Periods Main activities Public organization Spiritual life
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1. The Ancient World and the Ancient East The Ancient World Chronological framework IV - III millennia BC. e. - ser. I millennium AD e. Place in history: Follows the primitive era (Ancient East, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome). Non-classical slavery, pre-feudal "Asian" society. Ancient East North. Africa and Asia are the first civilizations ("river"). In the Nile Valley
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1. The Ancient World and the Ancient East IV - III millennium BC. e. -Spills of rivers and "storage" basins - Egypt. Channels - Mesopotamia, China. Irrigation - mass public works, control and accounting - the state. II - I millennium BC e. - iron. Leadership - Middle East, Transcaucasia, North. Mesopotamia (mountains - ore, sea - trade). States with a multilingual population. Fragility. Map of the Ancient East
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2. Ancient Egypt Nile - agriculture. (I threshold - mouth). Early Kingdom (XXXI - XXVIII centuries BC) - 3100 BC - Menos Upper + Lower Egypt (nomes - territories). The capital is Memphis. Old Kingdom (XXVIII - XXII centuries BC) - Despotic monarchy. The country is the "House of the King". + lands of temples and nobles. The state swallowed up the community. Bureaucracy. Writing. Ancient Egypt
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2. Ancient Egypt Deification of the pharaoh. Pyramids. The Middle Kingdom (XXI - XVIII centuries BC) - heyday. Unified systems of irrigation and defense. + Nubia and Palestine. "Ancient Eastern" system of exploitation. Distribution for government work - "rations". Slaves - "Home" (Egyptians), foreigners - hard work. The end is the invasion of the Hyksos. ancient egyptian pharaoh
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2. Ancient Egypt New Kingdom (XVI - XI centuries BC) - borders up to the IV threshold and the Euphrates (Thutmose III). Alien slaves: canals, temples. The capital is Thebes. 14th century BC e. - Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton) - religious reform. Failure. Ramses II - a new heyday of the XIII century. BC e. Defeat of the Hittites at Kadesh (1296). But: loss of possessions. Luxor Temple. (Ancient Thebes)
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2. Ancient Egypt Late Kingdom (XI - IV centuries BC) - disintegration: Lower Egypt - Libyan dynasties, Upper - Nubians. 7th century BC e. - Egypt - the periphery of the young empires (Assyria, Persia) 332 BC. - conquest by Alexander the Great. Hellenistic period. Alexandria of Egypt. Alexandrian lighthouse
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3. Mesopotamia Interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates. IV millennium BC e. - Sumer. III millennium BC e. - Akkad. Bilingual people. State cities. Tsar. Ziggurats - patron god. Priests - organizers of work, trade, duties in the community, etc. Land - to the temple (dependent workers). Eridu. Lv. Uruk. Lagash. Nippur (Religious center. En-lil). Cuneiform. Gilga Mesh. Mesopotamia in antiquity
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3. Mesopotamia Akkado - Sumerian state (XXIV - XXIII centuries BC) - Founder - Sargon. The capital is Kish. Conquest of Mesopotamia. Nomes - in state-tvennye areas. Their rulers are officials. The state of the III dynasty of Ur (XXII - XXI centuries BC) is a classic ancient Eastern bureaucratic despotism. State farms. I-e written laws. Clay tablet with cuneiform writing
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3. Mesopotamia Old Babylonian period (XX - XVII centuries BC) - Babylon (Euphrates) - a crossroads of trade routes. Heyday under Hammurappi (XVIII century BC). Laws. Neo-Assyrian kingdom (X - VII centuries BC) - Tig-latpalasar III (VIII century BC) - heyday. Powerful army. Assyria is a world power. Ashurbanipal. 612 BC – fall of Nineveh, 609 BC. - Assi-rii (Media + Babylon). Stella Hammurappi
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3. Mesopotamia Neo-Babylonian kingdom (626 - 539 BC) - Chaldean kings. Nebuchadnezzar II - all possessions of Assyria. Babylon is a fortress, an irrigation system. Ziggurat Marduka (Tower of Babel). Hanging Gardens of Babylon. 539 BC e. The Persians took Babylon. Coronation of Cyrus II. Mesopotamia lost its independent political significance. Babylon in antiquity
Articles:
Culture of Ancient Mesopotamia (briefly)
Mesopotamia - Mesopotamia or Mesopotamia - is a historical and geographical region in the Middle East, located in the valley of two great rivers - the Tigris and the Euphrates. This plain, along the middle and lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates, is almost entirely located within Iraq, in the southeast it enters Iran, in the northwest - into Syria and Turkey. Ancient Mesopotamia - one of the great civilizations ancient world. Conditional chronological framework- from the middle of the IV millennium BC. e. (Uruk era) to October 12, 539 BC. e. (fall of Babylon). At different times, the kingdoms of Sumer, Akkad, Babylonia and Assyria were located here.
Writing
One of major achievements Sumerian period was the invention of writing. They wrote in cuneiform on clay, which was abundant in Mesopotamia. Burnt clay tablets are better preserved than papyrus or other writing material of plant or animal origin. Thanks to this, many written monuments came from Mesopotamia. Entire libraries of cuneiform tablets have been discovered. The collection of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal in Nineveh of the 7th century BC gained world fame. In the 19th century, a part of this library was found - more than 25 thousand tablets. The texts were classified by branches of knowledge. It is difficult to overestimate the significance of this discovery for world history.
An outstanding monument of legal thought were the laws of King Hammurabi, the record of which was preserved on a two-meter stone pillar. The laws consisted of 282 articles, which reflected all aspects of society. Legal norms protected the interests of the ruling class of slave owners.
Astronomy
The needs of life and economy contributed to the development of science and scientific knowledge. The needs of the agricultural economy forced the inhabitants of Mesopotamia to turn to the study of heavenly bodies. They observed the movement of the sun, moon and stars. A star chart was created and all the celestial bodies visible to the naked eye were marked on it. Babylonian astronomers. from among the fixed stars, or, as they were called, "calmly grazing celestial sheep", five bright stars having independent movement (planets), and quite accurately determined their complex path. In the 7th century BC e. they learned to predict lunar eclipses.
The development of astronomical knowledge made it possible to create a calendar. The year was divided into twelve lunar months, each of which consisted of either 29 or 30 days, so that there were 354 days in a year. The error compared to the solar year was corrected by introducing a leap year consisting of 13 months.
Medicine of Mesopotamia
Significant development reached in Mesopotamia medicine. Surgeons were able to perform complex operations. Diseases were treated with medicines. Medicines were made mainly from plants. Lack of understanding of the causes of diseases caused the use by doctors of all kinds of conspiracies and spells to expel the "evil spirit" that supposedly inhabited a person.
Mathematics in Mesopotamia
Developing knowledge in the field of mathematics. For practical needs, numerous tables were compiled for four arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. The Babylonian number system was based on the numbers 12 and 60. The remnants of this system in our division of day and night into 12 hours, hours into 60 minutes, year into 12 months. In Mesopotamia, units of measures of weight, length, area, volume, money count were developed, subsequently borrowed by other peoples.
Already in the third millennium BC. e. in Mesopotamia they knew how to make glass. Cuneiform tablets describing the construction of a glass-melting furnace, as well as glass decorations, have been preserved. Durable paints (enamels) were created to cover bricks. Tiles made with their help, having lain in the ground for thousands of years, look as if they were made quite recently.
Architecture in Mesopotamia
The inhabitants of Mesopotamia achieved great skill in the construction business. They first learned how to fold vaults, widely used in architecture of a later time. Majestic royal palaces with many halls, courtyards, corridors were built from raw, rarely burnt, brick. The royal palaces of the Assyrians were distinguished by special splendor, in the 7th century. BC e. The walls of palaces were often covered by artists with images of court life, battles and hunting. They skillfully conveyed the tension of the battle, the fury of predators pursued by hunters and wounded by arrows, and often strings of prisoners ruthlessly driven by warriors.
The classical form of the temples was a high stepped tower - a ziggurat, surrounded by protruding terraces. The most famous ziggurat in history can be considered the temple of the god Marduk in Babylon - the famous Tower of Babel, the construction of which as the Babylonian pandemonium is mentioned in the Bible (90 meters high). The landscaped terraces of the Tower of Babel are known as the seventh wonder of the world - the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
According to the teachings of the Babylonian priests, people were created from clay to serve the gods. And it was the gods who determined the fate of people. Only the priests could know the will of the gods: they alone knew how to call and conjure spirits, to talk with the gods.
The myth of the flood
Some legends reflect natural disasters faced by people in antiquity. The legend of the flood is written on clay tablets. It tells that the gods, angry with people, sent a flood to the earth to exterminate mankind. Only one person was warned of the impending disaster. He built a large ship with a mast and a sail, took his family, domestic and wild animals, plant seeds. The flood continued for six days. Water filled the whole earth. All living things perished. Only one ship rushed across the boundless sea. On the seventh day, the sea calmed down, and above the watery desert, a man saw an island, which turned out to be the peak high mountain. A ship has come to her. The surviving people and animals got out on land.
Nature, population, periodization of the history of Ancient Mesopotamia
Lecture 5
Mesopotamia is a region in the middle and lower reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers (hence the second name - Mesopotamia). Its location at the crossroads of trade routes provided it with a leading role in international trade. The climate of Mesopotamia was different in the north and south: in the north it snowed and rained, in the south it was dry and hot. Fruit, cereals (barley, spelt, millet), industrial (flax), garden (onions, cucumbers, eggplant, pumpkin) and legumes, as well as date palms and grapes were grown here. The fauna in ancient times was rich.
The population of Mesopotamia was characterized by ethnic diversity, partly due to the policy of forced migration of peoples of the 1st millennium BC. e. Settlement began from ancient times. Peoples: Sumerians, Akkadians, etc. Later, the Sumerians merged with the Semites, but retained their religion and culture.
In these territories, there were several successive civilizations, which is reflected in the accepted periodization of the history of Ancient Mesopotamia:
– Ancient Sumer(III millennium BC): early dynastic period, the creation of despotic monarchies, the emergence of the state of Akkad;
– Babylonian kingdom: Old Babylonian (Amorite) period of the 19th–16th centuries. BC e., Middle Babylonian (Kassite) XVI-XII centuries. BC e. and neo-Babylonian (7th-6th centuries BC) periods; the conquest of the country by the Persians;
- Assyrian empire: Old Assyrian period (XX-XVI centuries BC), Middle Assyrian (XV-XI centuries BC), New Assyrian (X-VII centuries BC).
Ancient Sumer. In Mesopotamia, the development of civilization depended on irrigation, which was supposed to streamline the floods of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. This problem was solved around the middle of the 4th millennium BC. e. Around the same time, the first Sumerian tribes appeared in southern Mesopotamia and the Uruk culture arose with cities such as Eridu, Ur, Uruk. It is characterized by the creation of the foundations of the Sumerian civilization, the emergence of a class society and statehood. Around the end of IV - beginning of III millennium BC. e. pictographic writing arises, the need for which is associated with the need for strict consideration of the complex and diverse temple economy that has arisen. In the first half of the 3rd millennium, Southern Mesopotamia dominated the region economically and politically over the Akkadians and Hurrians who lived to the north. Irrigation agriculture improved, the number of metal products increased, and the first bronze tools appeared. Slave-owning relations are developing rapidly, state authorities are improving with all the characteristic attributes: the army, bureaucracy, prisons, etc. In the XXVIII - XXIV centuries. BC e. successively rise and receive the hegemony of the cities of Kish, Uruk, Ur, Lagash, Umma. In the XXIV–XXIII centuries. BC e. Sumer falls under the rule of the Akkadian rulers, the most influential of which was Sargon. He organized the first permanent army in history, managed to create a large centralized state in Mesopotamia with unlimited power of the king. In the XXII century. BC e. the territory of Sumer was conquered by the nomadic tribes of the Kuti, whose power was overthrown by the founders of the III dynasty of Ur (XXII - early XX centuries BC).
At this time, significant changes take place in the economy, society acquires a pronounced slave-owning character, and grandiose construction is underway. This type of temple building as a ziggurat is being improved. The state system of Sumero-Akkadian acquires the typical features of an oriental despotism, a significant layer of bureaucratic bureaucracy appears in the country. Writing is being improved, the myth of Gilgamesh is being created and written down, where for the first time in world history we meet the legend of the Flood. At the beginning of the 20th century BC e. The Sumero-Akkadian state perished under the onslaught of neighboring tribes and peoples.
Babylonian kingdom. After the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur, Mesopotamia experienced a period of political fragmentation, with a number of petty kingdoms fighting for dominance in the region. As a result of this struggle, the city of Babylon gains political independence and the city of Babylon rises, where the I Babylonian (Amorite) dynasty reigns. The flourishing of Babylon is associated with the name of King Hammurabi (1792–1750 BC). He managed to unite under his rule all of Mesopotamia, successively subjugating Uruk, Isip, Larsa, Mari, Assyria. During the reign of Hammurabi, monumental construction was carried out in Babylon, as a result of which the city became largest center Mesopotamia, the administration is being strengthened and social and property relations are being streamlined, as evidenced by the famous "Laws of Hammurabi". But already under the son of Hammurabi, the struggle for the liberation of the regions and states conquered by Babylon was growing, the pressure of the warlike Kassite tribes, which had formed in the north-west of Mesopotamia, the state of Mitanni, was increasing, and finally, in 1595 BC. e. The Hittites destroy Babylon, after which it falls under the rule of the Kassite rulers. During the Kassite rule, horses and mules were regularly used in military affairs, a combined plow-sower was introduced, a road network was created, and foreign trade was activated. From the XIII century BC. Assyria inflicts more and more severe blows on Babylon, which Elam, local rulers, eventually joins, and, as a result, around 1155 BC. e. Kassite dynasty ends its existence. In 744 BC. e. Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III invaded Babylonia, retaining the status of a separate kingdom for it. In 626 BC. e. an uprising broke out against Assyria (leader Nabopolassar, founder of the Chaldean dynasty). Under King Nebuchadnezzar II, Babylonia flourished. He conducts an active foreign policy (with varying success he fights in Egypt and more successfully in Judea). After the death of Nebuchadnezzar II, the throne went to Nabonidus, who tried to create a powerful state with the help of religion. He declared Sin to be the supreme god instead of Marduk, which led to a conflict with the priesthood.
In the VI century. BC e. a powerful enemy appeared in the East - the Persians, who defeated the Babylonians in 539. Nabonidus was captured and exiled. King Cyrus was portrayed as the liberator of the country. His policy was distinguished by respect for the religion of the Babylonians and forcibly resettled peoples. Cyrus retained Babylonia as a separate entity within the Persian empire.
Assyria. The state that emerged at the crossroads of profitable trade routes with the center in the city of Ashur was initially focused on the development of profitable trade relations with various regions. To this end, the Assyrians tried to establish a number of colonies outside of Assyria proper, but this was prevented by the rise of the state of Mari on the Euphrates, the formation of the Hittite state and the advancement of the Amorite tribes. At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 18th centuries. BC e. Assyria moves to an active foreign policy and becomes a large state with a new management organization and a strong army. Further confrontation with Babylon led to the subordination of Assyria to this state, and at the end of the 16th century. BC e. Ashur becomes dependent on the Mitanni. In the XV century. BC e. renewed attempts to revive the power of the Assyrian state, which by the end of the XIV century. were crowned with success. The state reaches its highest rise in the 13th century. King Tiglathpalasar makes over thirty campaigns, as a result of which Northern Syria and Northern Phoenicia were annexed. The objects of aggression are the southeastern regions of Asia Minor and Transcaucasia, where Assyria is at war with Urartu. But at the turn of the XI - X centuries. BC e. the country is being invaded by the Semitic-speaking tribes of the Aramaeans, who came from Arabia. Arameans settled in the territory of Assyria and mixed with the indigenous population. The further history of Assyria during the 150 years of foreign rule is practically unknown. At the end of the 10th century. BC e. Assyria was able to recover from the Aramaic invasion, largely due to the introduction of iron products into economic circulation and military affairs. Starting from the IX century. BC e. the expansion of Assyria is developing in almost all directions, especially intensively under the kings Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III. In advancing to the west, Assyria reaches the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The richest military booty that flowed to Assyria was used to decorate the capital, build royal palaces, and improve fortifications.
At the end of the IX - the first half of the VIII centuries. BC e. Assyria is in decline, caused by both internal and external reasons, from which it was able to get out only after the coming to power of Tiglath-Pileser III, who carried out administrative and military reforms. A little earlier in Assyria, an important event took place in the field of military affairs: cavalry(previously only chariots were used). The organization and armament of the Assyrian army began to far exceed the armies of its neighbors. Permanent units were introduced with a clear gradation into units, the size of the army reached 120 thousand people.
These reforms ensured the flourishing of Assyria's foreign policy in the 8th-7th centuries. BC e. As a result of several wars, it turns into the largest state of Western Asia, which included Mesopotamia, most of the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, and a number of regions of Media. Assyrians for the first time in history began to practice the resettlement of significant masses of the population from the conquered territories to other lands. A huge power was not distinguished by internal calm. Along with successful wars, the Assyrian kings had to constantly pacify the conquered peoples. Late 50s - 40s. 7th century BC e. characterized by uprisings, when a powerful coalition consisting of Babylon, Elam, Lydia, Egypt, and Media opposes Assyria. But Assyria manages to suppress them. During these wars, the Assyrians lost their "monopoly" on military innovations, they were successfully adopted by Media, Egypt, Babylon. In 614-605 BC e. the new coalition managed to inflict a military defeat on the Assyrians. Their largest cities - Ashur and Nineveh - were destroyed, the nobility was exterminated, the ordinary population scattered and mixed with other peoples and tribes. Assyria ceased to exist.
test questions
1. What are the features of the natural and geographical conditions of the Ancient Mesopotamia?
2. What are the main stages of the periodization of the history of Mesopotamia.
3. What are the features of the economic and political development of Ancient Sumer?
4. Describe the main stages in the formation of the Babylonian kingdom.
5. Why is the reign of Hammurabi called the time of the highest prosperity of Babylon?
6. What are the features of the development and the reasons for the decline of the Assyrian state?
Describing briefly the First World War, about which thousands of books and articles have been written, is not an easy task. However, if you look at the past events from the perspective of 100 years, you can see some of the critical features of this war from the point of view of humanity and world history.
In a nutshell, the countries of the Entente, which included France, Great Britain, Russia, Greece and the USA) defeated the allied countries - the Ottoman Empire, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria.
Despite the fact that the First World War affected the whole world, it nevertheless affected the peoples of the countries directly involved in the war, both those who won it and those who lost it.
The winners began to create a new world order, which was another blow for those who were defeated.
First World War has many different aspects, but in brief I would like to draw attention to the following three topics:
First, the First World War took place at a time when classical imperialist politics reigned in the world. The unitary European states that strengthened their positions in the 19th century then included most of the countries in their empires, and then began to fight against each other in the 20th century.
However, the wars affected not only the empires, but other states of the region. The Ottoman Empire stands in a special row among these countries.
Secondly, this war marked the end of the classical empire and led to the spread of a unitary state system whose roots go back to the 17th century. This process affected the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires more than others. Countries that were formerly part of Ottoman Empire after the First World War, they took the form determined by the victorious countries.
In particular, this can be seen in the example of the countries of the Middle East. The geopolitical situation in a large area from Mesopotamia to North Africa, from Central Asia to the Balkans is a consequence of the First World War.
However, it cannot be said that the imperialists were able to achieve complete success, and this is the third and most important aspect of the First World War.
The imperialist states failed to realize all their plans during the First World War and after it. Within this framework, it should be pointed out that among these plans they intended to create Armenian, Kurdish and Greek states on the territory of Turkey. The Turkish people have demonstrated steadfast courage in the struggle against the imperialist states.
The People's Liberation War, led by the great leader of the Turkish people, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, deprived the Armenians, Kurds and Greeks of the opportunity to realize their thoughts. The creation of the Republic of Turkey made these plans impossible.
Speaking about the National Liberation War, one should emphasize the special role of the victory at Canakkale, which took place in 1915 and which determined not only the course of the war, but also the fate of the entire world community.
And today we can draw lessons from the last war, again, paying attention to the consequences of some of its aspects.
First, the events taking place in Iraq, Syria, Palestine and the Middle East in general throughout the 20th century demonstrate how badly the results of the First World War were summed up.
Developments recent years testify that the boundaries drawn by the imperialist compasses at the end of the war were artificial and problematic. Evidence of this are the horrors perpetrated by IS in Syria and Iraq. These events can be seen as a consequence of the war that took place in the region 100 years ago.
However, the current conditions in the region and those that took place 100 years ago are significantly different from each other. In the current wars, not only external factors, that is, the imperialist states, but also the countries themselves and the leaders of the Middle East play a big role. In this situation, only the fact that the countries of the region independently determine their own destiny can be called a positive factor. The strong states of the region play an important role in regional politics. However, on the other hand, there is a confrontation between the countries of the region, which should be considered as a negative factor. Moreover, there is a danger that these conflicts may escalate into a sectarian or ethnic war.