Names of the largest plates of the Earth. Versions of the formation of the planet. Movement of lithospheric plates. Large lithospheric plates. Names of lithospheric plates What are lithospheric plates

How did the continents and islands appear? What determines the name of the largest plates of the Earth? Where did our planet come from?

How it all began?

Everyone at least once thought about the origin of our planet. For deeply religious people, everything is simple: God created the Earth in 7 days - period. They are unshakable in their confidence, even knowing the names of the largest lithospheric plates formed as a result of the evolution of the planet's surface. For them, the birth of our stronghold is a miracle, and no arguments of geophysicists, naturalists and astronomers can convince them.

Scientists, however, have a different opinion, based on hypotheses and assumptions. Ieeno they build guesses, put forward versions and come up with a name for everything. This also affected the largest plates of the Earth.

At the moment, it is not known for certain how our firmament appeared, but there are many interesting opinions. It was scientists who unanimously decided that once there was a single gigantic continent, which, as a result of cataclysms and natural processes, split into parts. Also, scientists came up with not only the name of the largest plates of the Earth, but also designated the small ones.

Theory on the verge of fantasy

For example, Immanuel Kant and Pierre Laplace - scientists from Germany - believed that the Universe emerged from a gaseous nebula, and the Earth is a gradually cooling planet, the earth's crust of which is nothing more than a cooled surface.

Another scientist, Otto Yulievich Schmidt, believed that the Sun, when passing through a gas and dust cloud, captured part of it. His version is that our Earth has never been a completely molten substance and was originally a cold planet.

According to the theory of the English scientist Fred Hoyle, the Sun had its own twin star, which exploded like a supernova. Almost all of the fragments were thrown to great distances, and a small number of those remaining around the Sun turned into planets. One of these fragments became the cradle of mankind.

Version as an axiom

The most common story of the origin of the Earth is as follows:

• About 7 billion years ago, the primary cold planet, after which its bowels began to gradually warm up.
• Then, during the so-called "lunar era", red-hot lava poured out in gigantic quantities to the surface. This led to the formation of the primary atmosphere and served as an impetus for the formation of the earth's crust - the lithosphere.
• Thanks to the primary atmosphere, oceans appeared on the planet, as a result of which the Earth was covered with a dense shell, representing the outlines of oceanic depressions and continental protrusions. In those distant times, the area of ​​​​water significantly prevailed over the area of ​​\u200b\u200bland. By the way, the earth's crust and the upper part of the mantle is called the lithosphere, which forms the lithospheric plates that make up the overall "look" of the Earth. The names of the largest plates correspond to their geographical position.

giant split

How did continents and lithospheric plates form? About 250 million years ago, the Earth looked completely different than it does now. Then on our planet there was only one, just the same giant continent called Pangea. His total area impressive and equaled the area of ​​​​all currently existing continents, including the islands. Pangea was washed on all sides by the ocean, which was called Panthalassa. This vast ocean occupied the entire remaining surface of the planet.

However, the existence of the supercontinent turned out to be short-lived. Processes were seething inside the Earth, as a result of which the substance of the mantle began to spread in different directions, gradually stretching the mainland. Because of this, Pangea first split into 2 parts, forming two continents - Laurasia and Gondwana. Then these continents gradually split into many parts, which gradually dispersed in different directions. In addition to new continents, lithospheric plates appeared. From the name of the largest plates, it becomes clear in which places giant faults formed.

The remnants of Gondwana are Australia and Antarctica known to us, as well as the South African and African lithospheric plates. It is proved that these plates are gradually diverging in our time - the speed of movement is 2 cm per year.

Fragments of Laurasia turned into two lithospheric plates - North American and Eurasian. At the same time, Eurasia consists not only of a fragment of Laurasia, but also of parts of Gondwana. The names of the largest plates that form Eurasia are Hindustan, Arabian and Eurasian.

Africa is directly involved in the formation of the Eurasian continent. Its lithospheric plate is slowly approaching the Eurasian one, forming mountains and uplands. It was because of this "union" that the Carpathians, the Pyrenees, the Ore Mountains, the Alps and the Sudetes appeared.

List of lithospheric plates

The names of the largest plates are as follows:

• South American;
• Australian;
• Eurasian;
• North American;
• Antarctic;
• Pacific;
• South American;
• Hindustan.

Medium sized slabs are:

• Arabian;
• Nazca;
• Scotia;
• Philippine;
• Coconut;
• Juan de Fuca.

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What are lithospheric plates. Map of lithospheric plates

If you like interesting facts about nature, then you probably would like to know what lithospheric plates are.

So, lithospheric plates are huge blocks into which the solid surface layer of the earth is divided. Given the fact that the rocks beneath them are melted, the plates move slowly, at a speed of 1 to 10 centimeters per year.

To date, there are 13 largest lithospheric plates that cover 90% of the earth's surface.

The largest lithospheric plates:

• Australian Plate - 47,000,000 km²
• Antarctic Plate - 60,900,000 km²
• Arabian subcontinent - 5,000,000 km²
• African Plate - 61,300,000 km²
• Eurasian Plate - 67,800,000 km²
• Hindustan Plate - 11,900,000 km²
• Coconut Plate - 2,900,000 km²
• Nazca Plate - 15,600,000 km²
• Pacific Plate - 103,300,000 km²
• North American Plate - 75,900,000 km²
• Somali plate - 16,700,000 km²
• South American Plate - 43,600,000 km²
• Philippine Plate - 5,500,000 km²

Here it must be said that there is a continental and oceanic crust. Some plates are composed entirely of one type of crust (such as the Pacific Plate), and some are of mixed types, where the plate begins in the ocean and smoothly transitions to the continent. The thickness of these layers is 70-100 kilometers.

Lithospheric plates float on the surface of a partially molten layer of the earth - the mantle. When the plates move apart, liquid rock called magma fills the cracks between them. When magma solidifies, it forms new crystalline rocks. We will talk about magma in more detail in the article on volcanoes.

Map of lithospheric plates

The largest lithospheric plates (13 pcs.)

At the beginning of the 20th century, the American F.B. Taylor and the German Alfred Wegener simultaneously came to the conclusion that the location of the continents is slowly changing. By the way, this, to a large extent, is the cause of earthquakes. But scientists could not explain how this happens until the 60s of the twentieth century, when the doctrine of geological processes on the seabed was developed.

Map of the location of lithospheric plates

It was the fossils that played the main role here. On different continents, fossilized remains of animals were found that clearly could not swim across the ocean. This led to the assumption that once all the continents were connected and animals calmly passed between them.

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Lithospheric plates

Lithospheric plates are the largest blocks of the lithosphere. The earth's crust, together with part of the upper mantle, consists of several very large blocks, which are called lithospheric plates. Their thickness is different - from 60 to 100 km. Most plates include both continental and oceanic crust. There are 13 main plates, of which 7 are the largest: American, African, Antarctic, Indo-Australian, Eurasian, Pacific, Amur.

The plates lie on the plastic layer of the upper mantle (asthenosphere) and slowly move relative to each other at a speed of 1-6 cm per year. This fact was established by comparing photographs taken with artificial satellites Earth. They suggest that the configuration of the continents and oceans in the future may be completely different from the current one, since it is known that the American lithospheric plate is moving towards the Pacific, and the Eurasian one is approaching the African, Indo-Australian, and also the Pacific. The American and African lithospheric plates are slowly moving apart.

The forces that cause the separation of lithospheric plates arise when the mantle substance moves. Powerful ascending flows of this substance push apart the plates, break the earth's crust, forming deep faults in it. Due to underwater outpourings of lavas, strata of igneous rocks are formed along the faults. Freezing, they seem to heal wounds - cracks. However, the stretch increases again, and breaks occur again. So, gradually growing, lithospheric plates diverge in different directions.

There are fault zones on land, but most of them are in the ocean ridges at the bottom of the oceans, where the earth's crust is thinner. The largest fault on land is located in eastern Africa. It stretched for 4000 km. The width of this fault is 80-120 km. Its outskirts are dotted with extinct and active volcanoes.

Collision is observed along other plate boundaries. It happens in different ways. If the plates, one of which has an oceanic crust and the other a continental one, approach each other, then the lithospheric plate, covered by the sea, sinks under the continental one. In this case, deep-sea trenches, island arcs (Japanese islands) or mountain ranges (Andes) arise. If two plates with a continental crust collide, then the edges of these plates are crushed into folds of rocks, volcanism and the formation of mountainous areas. This is how the Himalayas arose, for example, on the border of the Eurasian and Indo-Australian plates. The presence of mountainous regions in the inner parts of the lithospheric plate suggests that once there was a boundary between two plates, firmly soldered to each other and turned into a single, larger lithospheric plate. Thus, we can draw a general conclusion: the boundaries of lithospheric plates are mobile areas with volcanoes, earthquake zones, mountainous areas, mid-ocean ridges, deep-sea depressions and trenches. It is at the boundary of lithospheric plates that ore minerals are formed, the origin of which is associated with magmatism.

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The theory of lithospheric plates on the world map: which is the largest

The theory of lithospheric plates is the most interesting direction in geography. As modern scientists suggest, the entire lithosphere is divided into blocks that drift in the upper layer. Their speed is 2-3 cm per year. They are called lithospheric plates.

Founder of the theory of lithospheric plates

Who founded the theory of lithospheric plates? A. Wegener was one of the first in 1920 to make the assumption that the plates move horizontally, but he was not supported. And only in the 60s, surveys of the ocean floor confirmed his assumption.

The resurrection of these ideas led to the creation of the modern theory of tectonics. Its most important provisions were determined by a team of American geophysicists D. Morgan, J. Oliver, L. Sykes and others in 1967-68.

Scientists cannot say for sure what causes such shifts and how the boundaries are formed. Back in 1910, Wegener believed that at the very beginning of the Paleozoic period, the Earth consisted of two continents.

Laurasia covered the region of present-day Europe, Asia (India was not included), North America. It was the northern mainland. Gondwana included South America, Africa, Australia.

About two hundred million years ago, these two continents merged into one - Pangea. And 180 million years ago, it is again divided into two. Subsequently, Laurasia and Gondwana were also divided. Due to this split, the oceans were formed. Moreover, Wegener found evidence that confirmed his hypothesis about a single continent.

Map of the lithospheric plates of the world

Over the billions of years that the plates have been moving, they have repeatedly merged and separated. The strength and vigor of the movement of the continents is greatly influenced by the internal temperature of the Earth. With its increase, the speed of movement of the plates increases.

How many plates and how are lithospheric plates located on the world map today? Their boundaries are very arbitrary. Now there are 8 major plates. They cover 90% of the entire territory of the planet:

• Australian;
• Antarctic;
• African;
• Eurasian;
• Hindustan;
• Pacific;
• North American;
• South American.

Scientists are constantly inspecting and analyzing the ocean floor, and exploring faults. Open new plates and correct the lines of old ones.

The largest lithospheric plate

What is the largest lithospheric plate? The most impressive is the Pacific plate, the crust of which has an oceanic type of addition. Its area is 10,300,000 km². The size of this plate, as well as the size of the Pacific Ocean, are gradually decreasing.

In the south, it borders on the Antarctic Plate. On the north side, it creates the Aleutian Trench, and on the western side, the Mariana Trench.

Not far from California, where the eastern border runs, the movement of the plate is carried out along the length of the North American. This is where the San Andreas Fault is formed.

What happens when plates move

The lithospheric plates of the earth in their movement can diverge, merge, slide with neighboring ones. In the first variant, stretching areas with cracks are formed between them along the bordering lines.

In the second variant, compression zones are formed, which are accompanied by thrusting (obduction) of plates on top of each other. In the third case, faults are observed along the length of which they slide. Where the plates meet, they collide. This gives rise to mountains.

Lithospheric plates as a result of the collision form:

1. Tectonic faults, which are called rift valleys. They form in tensile zones;
2. In the case when there is a collision of plates with a continental type of crust, then one speaks of convergent boundaries. This causes the formation of large mountain systems. The Alpine-Himalayan system was the result of a collision of three plates: Eurasian, Indo-Australian, African;
3. If plates with different types of crust collide (one is continental, the other is oceanic), mountains form on the coast, and deep depressions (troughs) in the ocean. An example of such formation is the Andes and the Peruvian depression. It happens that together with the gutters island arcs (Japanese islands) are formed. This is how the Marianas and the trench were formed.

The lithospheric plate of Africa includes the African continent and has an oceanic type. This is where the biggest gap is located. Its length is 4000 km, and its width is 80-120. Its extremities are covered with numerous active and extinct volcanoes.

The lithospheric plates of the world, which have an oceanic type of crust structure, are often called oceanic. These include: Pacific, Coconut, Nazca. They occupy more than half of the world's oceans.

There are three of them in the Indian Ocean (Indo-Australian, African, Antarctic). The names of the plates correspond to the names of the continents that it washes. The lithospheric plates of the ocean are separated by underwater ridges.

Tectonics as a science

The tectonics of lithospheric plates studies their movement, as well as changes in the structure and composition of the Earth in a given area in a certain period of time. It assumes that it is not the continents that are drifting, but the lithospheric plates.

It is this movement that causes earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. It is confirmed by satellites, but the nature of such movement and its mechanisms are still unknown.

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Movement of lithospheric plates. Large lithospheric plates. Names of lithospheric plates

Earth's lithospheric plates are huge blocks. Their foundation is formed by highly folded granite metamorphosed igneous rocks. The names of the lithospheric plates will be given in the article below. From above they are covered with a three-four-kilometer "cover". It is formed from sedimentary rocks. The platform has a relief consisting of individual mountain ranges and vast plains. Next, the theory of the movement of lithospheric plates will be considered.

The emergence of the hypothesis

The theory of the movement of lithospheric plates appeared at the beginning of the twentieth century. Subsequently, she was destined to play a major role in the exploration of the planet. The scientist Taylor, and after him Wegener, put forward the hypothesis that over time there is a drift of lithospheric plates in a horizontal direction. However, in the thirties of the 20th century, a different opinion was established. According to him, the movement of lithospheric plates was carried out vertically. This phenomenon was based on the process of differentiation of the planet's mantle matter. It became known as fixism. Such a name was due to the fact that the permanently fixed position of sections of the crust relative to the mantle was recognized. But in 1960, after the discovery of a global system of mid-ocean ridges that encircle the entire planet and come out on land in some areas, there was a return to the hypothesis of the early 20th century. However, the theory has taken on a new form. Block tectonics has become the leading hypothesis in the sciences that study the structure of the planet.

Key points

It was determined that there are large lithospheric plates. Their number is limited. There are also smaller lithospheric plates of the Earth. The boundaries between them are drawn according to the concentration in the sources of earthquakes.

The names of the lithospheric plates correspond to the continental and oceanic regions located above them. There are only seven blocks with a huge area. The largest lithospheric plates are the South and North American, Euro-Asian, African, Antarctic, Pacific and Indo-Australian.

Blocks floating in the asthenosphere are characterized by solidity and rigidity. The above areas are the main lithospheric plates. In accordance with the initial ideas, it was believed that the continents make their way through the ocean floor. At the same time, the movement of lithospheric plates was carried out under the influence of an invisible force. As a result of the research, it was revealed that the blocks float passively over the material of the mantle. It is worth noting that their direction is vertical at first. The mantle material rises under the crest of the ridge. Then there is a spread in both directions. Accordingly, there is a divergence of lithospheric plates. This model represents the ocean floor as a giant conveyor belt. It comes to the surface in the rift regions of the mid-ocean ridges. Then hides in deep-sea trenches.

The divergence of lithospheric plates provokes the expansion of oceanic beds. However, the volume of the planet, despite this, remains constant. The fact is that the birth of a new crust is compensated by its absorption in subduction (underthrust) areas in deep-sea trenches.

Why does lithospheric plates move?

The reason is the thermal convection of the planet's mantle material. The lithosphere is stretched and uplifted, which occurs over ascending branches from convective currents. This provokes the movement of lithospheric plates to the sides. As the platform moves away from the mid-ocean rifts, the platform becomes compacted. It becomes heavier, its surface sinks down. This explains the increase in ocean depth. As a result, the platform plunges into deep-sea trenches. When the ascending flows from the heated mantle die down, it cools and sinks with the formation of basins, which are filled with sediments.

Plate collision zones are areas where the crust and platform experience compression. In this regard, the power of the first increases. As a result, the upward movement of lithospheric plates begins. It leads to the formation of mountains.

Research

The study today is carried out using geodetic methods. They allow us to conclude that the processes are continuous and ubiquitous. Collision zones of lithospheric plates are also revealed. The lifting speed can be up to tens of millimeters.

Horizontally large lithospheric plates float somewhat faster. In this case, the speed can be up to ten centimeters during the year. So, for example, St. Petersburg has already risen by a meter over the entire period of its existence. Scandinavian Peninsula - 250 m in 25,000 years. The mantle material moves relatively slowly. However, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other phenomena occur as a result. This allows us to draw a conclusion about the high power of moving the material.

Using the tectonic position of the plates, researchers explain many geological phenomena. At the same time, during the study, it turned out that the complexity of the processes occurring with the platform is much greater than it seemed at the very beginning of the appearance of the hypothesis.

Plate tectonics could not explain changes in the intensity of deformations and movement, the presence of a global stable network of deep faults, and some other phenomena. It also remains open question about the historical beginning of the action. Direct signs indicating plate-tectonic processes have been known since the late Proterozoic. However, a number of researchers recognize their manifestation from the Archean or early Proterozoic.

Expanding Research Opportunities

The advent of seismic tomography led to the transition of this science to a qualitatively new level. In the mid-eighties of the last century, deep geodynamics became the most promising and young direction of all the existing geosciences. However, the solution of new problems was carried out using not only seismic tomography. Other sciences also came to the rescue. These include, in particular, experimental mineralogy.

Thanks to the availability of new equipment, it became possible to study the behavior of substances at temperatures and pressures corresponding to the maximum at the depths of the mantle. The methods of isotope geochemistry were also used in the studies. This science studies, in particular, the isotopic balance of rare elements, as well as noble gases in various earthly shells. In this case, the indicators are compared with meteorite data. Methods of geomagnetism are used, with the help of which scientists are trying to uncover the causes and mechanism of reversals in a magnetic field.

Modern painting

The platform tectonics hypothesis continues to satisfactorily explain the evolution of the oceanic and continental crust over at least the last three billion years. At the same time, there are satellite measurements, according to which the fact that the main lithospheric plates of the Earth do not stand still is confirmed. As a result, a certain picture emerges.

There are three most active layers in the cross section of the planet. The thickness of each of them is several hundred kilometers. It is assumed that the main role in global geodynamics is assigned to them. In 1972, Morgan substantiated the hypothesis put forward in 1963 by Wilson about ascending mantle jets. This theory explained the phenomenon of intraplate magnetism. The resulting plume tectonics has become increasingly popular over time.

Geodynamics

With its help, the interaction of rather complex processes that occur in the mantle and the crust is considered. In accordance with the concept set forth by Artyushkov in his work "Geodynamics", the main source of energy is the gravitational differentiation of matter. This process is noted in the lower mantle.

After heavy components (iron, etc.) are separated from the rock, a lighter mass remains. solids. She descends into the core. The location of the lighter layer under the heavy one is unstable. In this regard, the accumulating material is collected periodically into fairly large blocks that float into the upper layers. The size of such formations is about a hundred kilometers. This material was the basis for the formation of the Earth's upper mantle.

The lower layer is probably an undifferentiated primary substance. During the evolution of the planet, due to the lower mantle, the upper mantle grows and the core increases. It is more likely that blocks of light material are uplifted in the lower mantle along the channels. In them, the temperature of the mass is quite high. At the same time, the viscosity is significantly reduced. The increase in temperature is facilitated by the release of a large amount of potential energy in the process of lifting matter into the region of gravity at a distance of about 2000 km. In the course of movement along such a channel, a strong heating of light masses occurs. In this regard, the substance enters the mantle, having a sufficiently high temperature and significantly less weight in comparison with the surrounding elements.

Due to the reduced density, light material floats into the upper layers to a depth of 100-200 kilometers or less. With decreasing pressure, the melting point of the components of the substance decreases. After the primary differentiation at the "core-mantle" level, the secondary one occurs. At shallow depths, light matter is partially subjected to melting. During differentiation, denser substances are released. They sink into the lower layers of the upper mantle. The released lighter components rise accordingly.

The complex of motions of substances in the mantle, associated with the redistribution of masses with different densities as a result of differentiation, is called chemical convection. The rise of light masses occurs at intervals of about 200 million years. At the same time, intrusion into the upper mantle is not observed everywhere. In the lower layer, the channels are located at a sufficiently large distance from each other (up to several thousand kilometers).

Boulder lifting

As mentioned above, in those zones where large masses of light heated material are introduced into the asthenosphere, its partial melting and differentiation occur. In the latter case, the separation of components and their subsequent ascent are noted. They quickly pass through the asthenosphere. When they reach the lithosphere, their speed decreases. In some areas, matter forms accumulations of anomalous mantle. They lie, as a rule, in the upper layers of the planet.

anomalous mantle

Its composition approximately corresponds to normal mantle matter. The difference of the anomalous cluster is more heat(up to 1300-1500 degrees) and reduced speed of elastic longitudinal waves.

The influx of matter under the lithosphere provokes isostatic uplift. Due to the elevated temperature, the anomalous cluster has a lower density than the normal mantle. In addition, there is a small viscosity of the composition.

In the process of entering the lithosphere, the anomalous mantle is rather quickly distributed along the sole. At the same time, it displaces the denser and less heated matter of the asthenosphere. In the course of movement, the anomalous accumulation fills those areas where the sole of the platform is in an elevated state (traps), and it flows around deeply submerged areas. As a result, in the first case, an isostatic uplift is noted. Above submerged areas, the crust remains stable.

Traps

The process of cooling the upper mantle layer and the crust to a depth of about a hundred kilometers is slow. In general, it takes several hundred million years. In this regard, inhomogeneities in the thickness of the lithosphere, explained by horizontal temperature differences, have a rather large inertia. In the event that the trap is located not far from the upward flow of the anomalous accumulation from the depth, a large amount of the substance is captured very heated. As a result, a rather large mountain element is formed. In accordance with this scheme, high uplifts occur in the area of ​​epiplatform orogeny in folded belts.

Description of processes

In the trap, the anomalous layer undergoes compression by 1–2 kilometers during cooling. The bark located on top is immersed. Precipitation begins to accumulate in the formed trough. Their heaviness contributes to even greater subsidence of the lithosphere. As a result, the depth of the basin can be from 5 to 8 km. At the same time, during the compaction of the mantle in the lower part of the basalt layer, a phase transformation of the rock into eclogite and garnet granulite can be observed in the crust. Due to the heat flow leaving the anomalous substance, the overlying mantle is heated and its viscosity decreases. In this regard, a gradual displacement of the normal cluster is observed.

Horizontal offsets

During the formation of uplifts in the process of the anomalous mantle reaching the crust on the continents and oceans, there is an increase in the potential energy stored in the upper layers of the planet. To dump excess substances, they tend to disperse to the sides. As a result, additional stresses are formed. They are associated with different types of movement of plates and crust.

The expansion of the ocean floor and the floating of the continents are the result of the simultaneous expansion of the ridges and the sinking of the platform into the mantle. Under the first are large masses of highly heated anomalous matter. In the axial part of these ridges, the latter is directly under the crust. The lithosphere here has a much smaller thickness. At the same time, the anomalous mantle spreads in the area of ​​high pressure - in both directions from under the ridge. At the same time, it quite easily breaks the ocean's crust. The crevice is filled with basaltic magma. It, in turn, is melted out of the anomalous mantle. In the process of solidification of magma, a new oceanic crust is formed. This is how the bottom grows.

Process features

Beneath the mid-ridges, the anomalous mantle has reduced viscosity due to elevated temperatures. The substance is able to spread quite quickly. As a result, the growth of the bottom occurs at an increased rate. The oceanic asthenosphere also has a relatively low viscosity.

The main lithospheric plates of the Earth float from the ridges to the places of immersion. If these areas are in the same ocean, then the process occurs at a relatively high speed. This situation is typical today for the Pacific Ocean. If the expansion of the bottom and the subsidence occurs in different areas, then the continent located between them drifts in the direction where the deepening occurs. Under the continents, the viscosity of the asthenosphere is higher than under the oceans. Due to the resulting friction, there is a significant resistance to movement. As a result, the rate at which the bottom expands is reduced if there is no compensation for the mantle subsidence in the same area. Thus, the expansion in the Pacific is faster than in the Atlantic.

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Wonderful-planet - Lithospheric plates.

You can find details in the section: Lithosphere

Lithospheric plates are large blocks of the earth's crust and parts of the upper mantle, of which the lithosphere is composed.

What is the composition of the lithosphere. - The main lithospheric plates. - Map of the Earth's lithosphere. - The movement of the lithosphere. - Lithospheric plates of Russia.

What is the composition of the lithosphere.

The lithosphere is made up of large blocks called lithospheric plates. Lithospheric blocks are 1-10,000 km across and their thickness varies from 60 to 100 km. Most of the lithospheric blocks include both the continental crust and the oceanic one. Although there are cases when the lithospheric plate consists exclusively of oceanic crust (Pacific Plate).

Lithospheric plates consist of igneous, metamorphosed and granitic rocks strongly crumpled into folds at the base, and a 3-4 km layer of sedimentary rocks on top.

At the heart of each continent is one or more ancient platforms, along the border of which a chain of mountain ranges runs. Inside the platform, the relief is usually represented by flat plains with separate mountain ranges.

The boundaries of lithospheric plates are characterized by high tectonic, seismic and volcanic activity. There are three types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform. The outlines of the lithospheric plates are constantly changing. The big ones split, the small ones stick together. Some plates can sink into the Earth's mantle.

As a rule, only three lithospheric plates converge at one point on the globe. The configuration, when four or more plates converge at one point, is unstable, and quickly collapses with time.

The main lithospheric plates of the Earth.

Most of the earth's surface, about 90%, is covered by 14 major lithospheric plates. This:

• australian plate
• Antarctic Plate
• Arabian subcontinent
• African plate
• Eurasian plate
• Hindustan plate
• Cooker Coconut
• Nazca plate
• Pacific Plate
• Scotia plate
• North American Plate
• Somali plate
• South American Plate
• Philippine plate

Fig 1. Map of the Earth's lithospheric plates.

Movement of the Earth's lithosphere.

Lithospheric plates are constantly moving relative to each other at a speed of up to several tens of centimeters per year. This fact was recorded by photographs taken from artificial satellites of the Earth. It is now known that the American lithospheric plate is moving towards the Pacific, and the Eurasian is approaching the African, Indo-Australian, and also the Pacific. The American and African lithospheric plates are slowly moving apart.

Lithospheric plates - the main components of the lithosphere - lie on the plastic layer of the upper mantle - the asthenosphere. It is she who plays the main role in the movement of the earth's crust. The substance of the asthenosphere as a result of thermal convection (heat transfer in the form of jets and flows) slowly “flows”, dragging blocks of the lithosphere with it and causing them to move horizontally. If the substance of the asthenosphere rises or falls, this leads to the vertical movement of the earth's crust. The speed of the vertical movement of the lithosphere is much less than the horizontal one - only up to 1-2 tens of millimeters per year.

With the vertical movement of the lithosphere above the ascending branches of the convective currents of the asthenosphere, lithospheric plates are ruptured and faults are formed. Lava rushes into the faults and, cooling down, fills the empty cavities with strata of igneous rocks. But then the growing stretching of the moving lithospheric plates again leads to a break. So, gradually growing in places of faults, lithospheric plates diverge in different directions. This strip of horizontal divergence of plates is called the rift zone. With distance from the rift zone, the lithosphere cools, becomes heavier, thickens and, as a result, sinks deeper into the mantle, forming areas of relief depression.

Fault zones are observed both on land and in the ocean. The largest continental fault, more than 4000 km long and 80-120 km wide, is located in Africa. There are a large number of active and dormant volcanoes on the slopes of the fault.

At this time, on the boundary opposite from the fault, a collision of lithospheric plates occurs. This collision can proceed in different ways depending on the types of colliding plates.

• If the oceanic and continental plates collide, the first sinks under the second. In this case, deep-sea trenches, island arcs (Japanese islands) or mountain ranges (Andes) arise.
• If two continental lithospheric plates collide, then at this point the edges of the plates are crumpled into folds, which leads to the formation of volcanoes and mountain ranges. Thus, the Himalayas arose on the border of the Eurasian and Indo-Australian plates. In general, if there are mountains in the center of the mainland, this means that once it was a place of collision of two lithospheric plates welded into one.

Thus, the earth's crust is in constant motion. In its irreversible development, mobile areas - geosynclines - turn through long-term transformations into relatively calm areas - platforms.

Lithospheric plates of Russia.

Russia is located on four lithospheric plates.

• Eurasian plate - most of the western and northern parts of the country,
• The North American Plate is the northeastern part of Russia,
• Amur lithospheric plate - south of Siberia,
• Sea of ​​Okhotsk plate - the Sea of ​​Okhotsk and its coast.

Fig 2. Map of the lithospheric plates of Russia.

In the structure of lithospheric plates, relatively even ancient platforms and mobile folded belts stand out. Plains are located on stable areas of the platforms, and mountain ranges are located in the region of folded belts.

Fig 3. Tectonic structure of Russia.

Russia is located on two ancient platforms (East European and Siberian). Slabs and shields stand out within the platforms. A plate is a section of the earth's crust, the folded base of which is covered with a layer of sedimentary rocks. Shields, in contrast to plates, have very little sedimentary deposits and only a thin layer of soil.

In Russia, the Baltic Shield is distinguished on the East European Platform and the Aldan and Anabar Shields on the Siberian Platform.

Figure 4. Platforms, slabs and shields in Russia.

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Lithospheric Plate

The lithospheric plate is a large stable area of ​​the earth's crust, part of the lithosphere. According to the theory of plate tectonics, lithospheric plates are limited by zones of seismic, volcanic and tectonic activity - plate boundaries. There are three types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform.

From geometric considerations, it is clear that only three plates can converge at one point. A configuration in which four or more plates converge at one point is unstable, and quickly collapses over time.

There are two fundamentally different types of earth's crust - continental crust and oceanic crust. Some lithospheric plates are composed exclusively of oceanic crust (an example is the largest Pacific plate), others consist of a block of continental crust soldered into the oceanic crust.

Lithospheric plates are constantly changing their outlines, they can split as a result of rifting and solder, forming a single plate as a result of collision. Lithospheric plates can also sink into the planet's mantle, reaching deep into the core. On the other hand, the division of the earth's crust into plates is ambiguous, and as geological knowledge accumulates, new plates are distinguished, and some plate boundaries are recognized as non-existent. Therefore, the outlines of the plates change with time in this sense as well. This is especially true for small plates, for which geologists have proposed many kinematic reconstructions, often mutually exclusive.

Map of lithospheric plates Tectonics plates (preserved surfaces)

More than 90% of the Earth's surface is covered by the 14 largest lithospheric plates:

Medium slabs:

Microplates

Disappeared plates:

Disappeared oceans:

Supercontinents:

Notes

Calculation of the thickness of the slab foundation

Lithosphere- solid shell of the Earth. It consists of the earth's crust and the upper part of the mantle, up to the asthenosphere, where the seismic wave velocities decrease, indicating a change in the plasticity of the rocks. In the structure of the lithosphere, mobile areas (folded belts) and relatively stable platforms are distinguished.

Blocks of the lithosphere- lithospheric plates - move along the relatively plastic asthenosphere. The section of geology on plate tectonics is devoted to the study and description of these movements.

The lithosphere under oceans and continents varies considerably. The lithosphere under the continents consists of sedimentary, granite and basalt layers with a total thickness of up to 80 km. The lithosphere under the oceans has undergone many stages of partial melting as a result of the formation of oceanic crust, it is highly depleted in low-melting rare elements, mainly consists of dunites and harzburgites, its thickness is 5-10 km, and the granite layer is completely absent.

To designate the outer shell of the lithosphere, the now obsolete term sial was used, which comes from the name of the main elements of rocks Si - silicon and Al - aluminum.

lithospheric plate is a large stable area of ​​the earth's crust, part of the lithosphere. According to the theory of plate tectonics, lithospheric plates are limited by zones of seismic, volcanic and tectonic activity - plate boundaries. There are three types of plate boundaries: divergent, convergent, and transform.

From geometric considerations, it is clear that only three plates can converge at one point. A configuration in which four or more plates converge at one point is unstable, and quickly collapses over time.

There are two fundamentally different types of earth's crust - continental crust and oceanic crust. Some lithospheric plates are composed exclusively of oceanic crust (an example is the largest Pacific plate), others consist of a block of continental crust soldered into the oceanic crust.

Lithospheric plates are constantly changing their outlines, they can split as a result of rifting and solder, forming a single plate as a result of collision. Lithospheric plates can also sink into the planet's mantle, reaching deep into the outer core. On the other hand, the division of the earth's crust into plates is ambiguous, and as geological knowledge accumulates, new plates are distinguished, and some plate boundaries are recognized as non-existent. Therefore, the outlines of the plates change with time in this sense as well. This is especially true for small plates, for which geologists have proposed many kinematic reconstructions, often mutually exclusive.

More than 90% of the Earth's surface is covered by the 14 largest lithospheric plates:

australian plate

Antarctic Plate

Arabian subcontinent

African plate

Eurasian plate

Hindustan plate

Cooker Coconut

Nazca plate

Pacific Plate

Scotia plate

North American Plate

Somali plate

South American Plate

Philippine plate

The set of irregularities of the earth's surface form its relief.

Landforms differ in size, origin, development history. The relief of the earth, it would be more correct to say, the earth's surface is the result of a complex interaction of internal and external forces. Internal forces, the energy of which is provided by the internal energy of the Earth itself, create large irregularities. External forces smooth out these irregularities, creating smaller irregularities.

Most large forms relief of the Earth - protrusions of the continents and depressions of the oceans. Their distribution is determined by the structure of the earth's crust - the presence or absence of a granite layer. There are currently six continents on Earth. Land on the surface of the Earth is unevenly distributed. It is possible to distinguish two conditional hemispheres on the planet - oceanic and continental. In the center of the first is Pacific Ocean, in the center of the second - Africa. The prevailing heights within the land are about 800 m, the average depths of the ocean are about 3500 m. The surface of the land and the ocean floor is complicated by low-order irregularities.

The main landforms are mountains and plains. About 60% of the land surface is occupied by plains. These are vast areas of the earth's surface with a small fluctuation in altitude (about 200 m), relatively low elevation above sea level. According to the absolute height, the plains are divided into lowlands (height from 0 to 200 m), highlands (200-500 m) and plateaus (above 500 m). By the nature of the surface - flat, hilly and stepped. Plain territories are the most populated and developed by people. Most of the cities and transport routes, the main arrays of cultivated land are concentrated on them.

Mountains are distinct elevations on the earth's surface with heights of more than 200 m, with well-defined slopes and soles. Mountainous areas occupy about 40% of the land surface. Most of the mountains on Earth stretch in mutually perpendicular directions, close to sublatitudinal or submeridional. By height, mountains are divided into low (with heights up to 1000 m), medium-altitude (1000-2000 m) and high (more than 2000 m). In accordance with the structure of the mountains are folded, folded - blocky and blocky. By geomorphological age, young, rejuvenated and revived mountains are distinguished. On land, mountains of tectonic origin predominate, in the oceans - volcanic.

Within the land, the distribution of mountainous and flat territories is determined by the structure of the earth's crust. On the platforms, due to the horizontal occurrence of rocks, there are plains. In folded areas, rocks occur in the form of folds, and mountains correspond to them in relief.

The structure of the earth's crust determines not only the relief, but also the distribution of minerals. Minerals of sedimentary origin (oil, gas, coal, salts) are concentrated in the sedimentary rocks of the platform cover. Minerals of igneous origin - in folded areas and the crystalline foundation of the platforms. The greatest variety of minerals is characteristic of ancient platforms.

The lithosphere is the stone shell of the Earth. From the Greek "lithos" - a stone and "sphere" - a ball

The lithosphere is the outer solid shell of the Earth, which includes the entire earth's crust with part of the Earth's upper mantle and consists of sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks. The lower boundary of the lithosphere is fuzzy and is determined by a sharp decrease in rock viscosity, a change in the propagation velocity of seismic waves, and an increase in the electrical conductivity of rocks. The thickness of the lithosphere on the continents and under the oceans varies and averages 25 - 200 and 5 - 100 km, respectively.

Consider in general terms geological structure Earth. The third planet farthest from the Sun - the Earth has a radius of 6370 km, an average density of 5.5 g / cm3 and consists of three shells - bark, robes and i. The mantle and core are divided into inner and outer parts.

The Earth's crust is a thin upper shell of the Earth, which has a thickness of 40-80 km on the continents, 5-10 km under the oceans and makes up only about 1% of the Earth's mass. Eight elements - oxygen, silicon, hydrogen, aluminum, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium - form 99.5% of the earth's crust.

According to scientific research, scientists managed to establish that the lithosphere consists of:

• Oxygen - 49%;
• Silicon - 26%;
• Aluminum - 7%;
• Iron - 5%;
• Calcium - 4%
• The composition of the lithosphere includes many minerals, the most common are feldspar and quartz.

On the continents, the crust is three-layered: sedimentary rocks cover granitic rocks, and granitic rocks lie on basalt rocks. Under the oceans, the crust is "oceanic", two-layered; sedimentary rocks lie simply on basalts, there is no granite layer. There is also a transitional type of the earth's crust (island-arc zones on the outskirts of the oceans and some areas on the continents, such as the Black Sea).

The earth's crust is thickest in mountainous regions.(under the Himalayas - over 75 km), the middle one - in the areas of the platforms (under the West Siberian lowland - 35-40, within the boundaries of the Russian platform - 30-35), and the smallest - in the central regions of the oceans (5-7 km). The predominant part of the earth's surface is the plains of the continents and the ocean floor.

The continents are surrounded by a shelf - a shallow-water strip up to 200 g deep and an average width of about 80 km, which, after a sharp steep bend of the bottom, passes into the continental slope (the slope varies from 15-17 to 20-30 °). The slopes gradually level off and turn into abyssal plains (depths 3.7-6.0 km). The greatest depths (9-11 km) have oceanic trenches, the vast majority of which are located on the northern and western margins of the Pacific Ocean.

The main part of the lithosphere consists of igneous igneous rocks (95%), among which granites and granitoids predominate on the continents, and basalts in the oceans.

Blocks of the lithosphere - lithospheric plates - move along the relatively plastic asthenosphere. The section of geology on plate tectonics is devoted to the study and description of these movements.

To designate the outer shell of the lithosphere, the now obsolete term sial was used, which comes from the name of the main elements of rocks Si (lat. Silicium - silicon) and Al (lat. Aluminum - aluminum).

Lithospheric plates

It is worth noting that the largest tectonic plates are very clearly visible on the map and they are:

• Pacific- the largest plate of the planet, along the boundaries of which constant collisions of tectonic plates occur and faults form - this is the reason for its constant decrease;
• Eurasian- covers almost the entire territory of Eurasia (except Hindustan and the Arabian Peninsula) and contains the largest part of the continental crust;
• Indo-Australian- It includes the Australian continent and the Indian subcontinent. Due to constant collisions with the Eurasian plate, it is in the process of breaking;
• South American- consists of the South American mainland and part of the Atlantic Ocean;
• North American- consists of the North American continent, part northeastern Siberia, the northwestern part of the Atlantic and half of the Arctic Oceans;
• African- consists of the African continent and the oceanic crust of the Atlantic and Indian oceans. It is interesting that the plates adjacent to it move in the opposite direction from it, therefore the largest fault of our planet is located here;
• Antarctic Plate- consists of the mainland Antarctica and the nearby oceanic crust. Due to the fact that the plate is surrounded by mid-ocean ridges, the rest of the continents are constantly moving away from it.

Movement of tectonic plates in the lithosphere

Lithospheric plates, connecting and separating, change their outlines all the time. This allows scientists to put forward the theory that about 200 million years ago the lithosphere had only Pangea - a single continent, which subsequently split into parts, which began to gradually move away from each other at a very low speed (an average of about seven centimeters per year ).

It is interesting! There is an assumption that due to the movement of the lithosphere, in 250 million years a new continent will form on our planet due to the union of moving continents.

When the oceanic and continental plates collide, the edge of the oceanic crust sinks under the continental one, while on the other side of the oceanic plate its boundary diverges from the plate adjacent to it. The boundary along which the movement of the lithospheres occurs is called the subduction zone, where the upper and plunging edges of the plate are distinguished. It is interesting that the plate, plunging into the mantle, begins to melt when the upper part of the earth's crust is squeezed, as a result of which mountains are formed, and if magma also breaks out, then volcanoes.

In places where tectonic plates come into contact with each other, there are zones of maximum volcanic and seismic activity: during the movement and collision of the lithosphere, the earth's crust collapses, and when they diverge, faults and depressions form (the lithosphere and the Earth's relief are connected to each other). This is the reason why the largest landforms of the Earth are located along the edges of the tectonic plates - mountain ranges with active volcanoes and deep-sea trenches.

Problems of the lithosphere

The intensive development of industry has led to the fact that man and the lithosphere have recently become extremely difficult to get along with each other: pollution of the lithosphere is acquiring catastrophic proportions. This happened due to the increase in industrial waste in combination with household waste and fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture, which negatively affects the chemical composition of the soil and living organisms. Scientists have calculated that about one ton of garbage falls per person per year, including 50 kg of hardly decomposable waste.

Today, pollution of the lithosphere has become an urgent problem, since nature is not able to cope with it on its own: the self-purification of the earth's crust is very slow, and therefore harmful substances gradually accumulate and eventually negatively affect the main culprit of the problem - man.

In the distant 2000s, there was a program on one Belarusian channel where children were simply told about complex things. I watched it every day at 3 pm, right after the 7th lesson. It was thanks to her that I learned what lithospheric plates are. In this answer, I want to delve a little deeper into this topic so that it seems even more interesting.

What are called lithospheric plates

When you are a small child, you live without thinking about anything. It would never have occurred to me that the top layer of the Earth is broken into several pieces, which are called plates. For the first time, an American archaeologist guessed about their existence, and a few years later their existence was fully proven, and a European scientist already determined their boundaries.

There are 13 large lithospheric plates on our planet (they cover more than 85% of the Earth). Some mistakenly believe that these are generally all existing plates. However, it is not. There are more than 50 microplates and medium-sized plates in the world. Sometimes plates disappear due to the influence of various factors. Plates that no longer exist:

• Cimmerian plate;
• Congo plate;
• Bellingshausen plate;
• Kula plate;
• Phoenix plate.

Usually lithospheric plates disappear due to collision with each other. When two plates of approximately the same size collide, mountains form.

Amasia supercontinent

Everyone has heard about the ancient huge continent, which scientists have dubbed "Pangaea". It existed 300 million years ago, but split into several continents due to the movement of lithospheric plates.

The plates continue to move to this day. Most likely, in a few hundred million years, a new huge continent will appear on Earth. It has already been called Amazia. According to this theory, the Americas will reconnect and then head north together and collide with Eurasia.

There are also two less popular theories. One of them says that a new supercontinent will appear in the same place where the Pangea was located. And the other claims that Amasia will appear on the other side of the globe (in the Pacific Ocean).

Planets reaching the depths of the outer core. On the other hand, the division of the earth's crust into plates is ambiguous, and as geological knowledge accumulates, new plates are distinguished, and some plate boundaries are recognized as non-existent. Therefore, the outlines of the plates change with time in this sense as well. This is especially true for small plates, for which geologists have proposed many kinematic reconstructions, often mutually exclusive.

Study of

For the first time drew attention to the fact that the Earth's lithosphere is divided into a number of plates, Canadian archaeologist J. Wilson in 1965. A few years later, the American W. Morgan and the Frenchman C. Le Pichon determined the boundaries of the lithospheric plates.

Types of lithospheric plates

see also

Lithospheric plates Main Internal

An excerpt characterizing the lithospheric plate

“Very glad to see you, prince,” he said. - Wait a minute ... he turned to Magnitsky, interrupting his story. - We have an agreement today: a dinner of pleasure, and not a word about business. - And he again turned to the narrator, and again laughed.
Prince Andrei listened to his laughter with surprise and sadness of disappointment and looked at the laughing Speransky. It was not Speransky, but another person, it seemed to Prince Andrei. Everything that previously seemed mysterious and attractive to Prince Andrei in Speransky suddenly became clear and unattractive to him.
At the table, the conversation did not stop for a moment and seemed to consist of a collection of funny anecdotes. Magnitsky had not even finished his story when someone else declared his readiness to tell something that was even funnier. Anecdotes for the most part concerned, if not the service world itself, then officials. It seemed that in this society the insignificance of these persons was so finally decided that the only attitude towards them could only be good-naturedly comic. Speransky told how at this morning's council, when asked by a deaf dignitary about his opinion, this dignitary answered that he was of the same opinion. Gervais told the whole case about the audit, remarkable for the nonsense of all the actors. Stolypin stammered into the conversation and began talking with vehemence about the abuses of the old order of things, threatening to make the conversation serious. Magnitsky began to tease Stolypin's vehemence, Gervais interjected a joke, and the conversation again took its former, cheerful direction.
Obviously, after his labors, Speransky liked to relax and have fun in a friendly circle, and all his guests, understanding his desire, tried to amuse him and have fun themselves. But this fun seemed to Prince Andrei heavy and sad. The subtle sound of Speransky's voice struck him unpleasantly, and the incessant laughter with its false note for some reason offended Prince Andrei's feelings. Prince Andrei did not laugh and was afraid that he would be difficult for this society. But no one noticed his inconsistency with the general mood. Everyone seemed to be having a lot of fun.
Several times he wanted to enter into a conversation, but each time his word was thrown out like a cork out of water; and he could not joke with them together.
There was nothing bad or inappropriate in what they said, everything was witty and could have been funny; but something, that very thing that is the salt of fun, not only did not exist, but they did not even know that it happens.
After dinner, Speransky's daughter and her governess got up. Speransky caressed his daughter with his white hand and kissed her. And this gesture seemed unnatural to Prince Andrei.
The men, in English, remained at the table and drinking port. In the middle of the conversation that began about the Spanish affairs of Napoleon, approving of which, everyone was of the same opinion, Prince Andrei began to contradict them. Speransky smiled and, obviously wishing to divert the conversation from the accepted direction, told an anecdote that had nothing to do with the conversation. For a few moments everyone was silent.
After sitting at the table, Speransky corked up a bottle of wine and saying: “today good wine goes in boots”, gave it to the servant and got up. Everyone stood up and also noisily talking went into the living room. Speransky was given two envelopes brought by a courier. He took them and went into the office. As soon as he left, the general merriment ceased, and the guests began talking judiciously and quietly to each other.
- Well, now the declamation! - said Speransky, leaving the office. - Amazing talent! - he turned to Prince Andrei. Magnitsky immediately struck a pose and began to speak French humorous verses, composed by him on some famous people of St. Petersburg, and was interrupted several times by applause. Prince Andrei, at the end of the poems, went up to Speransky, saying goodbye to him.
- Where are you going so early? Speransky said.
I promised tonight...
They were silent. Prince Andrei looked closely into those mirrored eyes that did not let him in, and it became funny to him how he could expect anything from Speransky and from all his activities connected with him, and how he could attribute importance to what Speransky was doing. This neat, sad laughter did not cease to sound in the ears of Prince Andrei for a long time after he left Speransky.
Returning home, Prince Andrei began to recall his Petersburg life during these four months, as if something new. He recalled his efforts, searches, the history of his draft military regulations, which was taken into account and about which they tried to keep silent solely because another work, very bad, had already been done and presented to the sovereign; remembered the meetings of the committee, of which Berg was a member; I recalled how diligently and at length everything relating to the form and process of committee meetings was discussed in these meetings, and how diligently and briefly everything related to the essence of the matter was avoided. He remembered his legislative work, how he anxiously translated articles of the Roman and French code into Russian, and he felt ashamed of himself. Then he vividly imagined Bogucharovo, his activities in the countryside, his trip to Ryazan, remembered the peasants, Dron the headman, and applying to them the rights of persons, which he divided into paragraphs, he wondered how he could have been engaged in such idle work for so long.

The next day, Prince Andrei went on visits to some houses where he had not yet been, including the Rostovs, with whom he renewed his acquaintance at the last ball. In addition to the laws of courtesy, according to which he needed to be with the Rostovs, Prince Andrei wanted to see at home this special, lively girl, who left him a pleasant memory.
Natasha was one of the first to meet him. She was in a homely blue dress, in which she seemed to Prince Andrei even better than in the ballroom. She and the entire Rostov family accepted Prince Andrei as an old friend, simply and cordially. The whole family, which Prince Andrei used to strictly judge, now seemed to him made up of beautiful, simple and kind people. The hospitality and good nature of the old count, especially charmingly striking in St. Petersburg, was such that Prince Andrei could not refuse dinner. “Yes, these are kind, glorious people,” thought Bolkonsky, who, of course, did not understand in the slightest degree the treasure that they have in Natasha; but kind people who make up the best background for this especially poetic, overflowing life, lovely girl to stand out on it!
Prince Andrei felt in Natasha the presence of a completely alien to him, a special world, full of some joys unknown to him, that alien world that even then, in Otradnenskaya alley and at the window, on a moonlit night, teased him so much. Now this world no longer teased him, there was no alien world; but he himself, entering into it, found in it a new pleasure for himself.